Rihalle Kaafi

Phonology

Consonants

Allophony

As detailed below, many consonant phonemes have palatalized allophones, some have allophones that are found when geminate, and some have allophones that are found when intervocalic and non-geminate. Palatalized allophones are found when the next vowel in a word, including clitics, is a front vowel or there is a y before the next vowel in a word.

Unpalatalized /t/ and /d/ are denti-alveolar but palatalized /t/ and /d/ are alveolar. All other unpalatalized coronal consonants are alveolar. Note that the affrication of palatalized /t/ and /d/ is suppressed before another consonant but they are still realized as alveolar then.

Standard/Eastern

* Palatalized allophone

+ Intervocalic allophone (note that these do not apply when geminate)

! Geminate allophone

# Extreme eastern dialects only

$ Only before homorganic consonants

Central

* Palatalized allophone

+ Intervocalic allophone (note that these do not apply when geminate)

! Geminate allophone

$ Only before homorganic consonants

Western

* Palatalized allophone

+ Intervocalic allophone (note that these do not apply when geminate)

! Geminate allophone

$ Only before homorganic consonants

Classical

+ Intervocalic allophone (note that these do not apply when geminate)

$ Only before homorganic consonants

Vowels

Standard/Central

The following monophthongs can be short:

or long:

The following monophthong-semivowel sequences are realized differently before consonants or finally:

* Unstressed allophone

+ Pre-uvular and, in central dialects, pre-pharyngeal allophone

Eastern

The following monophthongs can be short:

or long:

The following monophthong-semivowel sequences are realized differently before consonants or finally:

* Unstressed allophone

+ Pre-uvular allophone

# Unstressed non-pre-uvular allophone in extreme eastern dialects.

Western

The following monophthongs can be short:

or long:

The following monophthong-semivowel sequences are realized differently before consonants or finally:

* Unstressed allophone

+ Pre-uvular allophone

Classical

The following monophthongs can be short:

or long:

The following monophthong-semivowel sequences are realized differently before consonants or finally:

+ Pre-uvular and pre-pharyngeal allophone

Stress

Stress always falls on the leftmost heaviest of the last three syllables of a word, including clitics.

Syllable Structure

Syllables have the structure CV(ː)(C)(C), except that the first syllable of a word may lack an onset. Note that hiatus is not allowed, and otherwise unresolved hiatuses are resolved by inserting y if the following vowel phoneme is a front vowel phoneme or w if the following vowel phoneme is a back vowel phoneme.

Morphosyntax

Basics

The basic sentence structure is VSO, with noun-adjective, noun-genitive, noun-relative, adposition-noun, pronoun-adposition, determiner-noun, number-noun, and verb-adverb orders.

The basic word classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, adpositions, independent pronouns, and pronominal clitics.

There are masculine animate, feminine animate, masculine inanimate, and feminine inanimate genders.

There are singular, dual, and plural numbers, but dual is only marked on pronouns and pronominal clitics.

Alignment is split-ergative on the basis of animacy and definiteness.

Nouns and adjectives have nominative-absolutive, ergative, accusative, and genitive cases. In the classical language there is an additional vocative case.

Nouns and adjectives have absolute and construct states.

Pronominal clitics precede indicative present imperfective and stative verbs, and otherwise go after the verb.

Alignment

The primary alignment is split-ergative on the basis of animacy and definiteness. Intransitive clauses take nominative-absolutive arguments. Transitive clauses take nominative-absolutive animate agents unspecified for definiteness, ergative inanimate agents, and ergative definite animate agents; they take nominative-absolutive inanimate patients unspecified for definiteness, accusative animate patients, and accusative definite inanimate patients. Causees of causative verbs derived from intransitive verbs are case-marked like patients of transitive verbs; causees of causative verbs derived from transitive verbs are case-marked like agents of transitive verbs even if there is no patient. Applicative arguments are normally case-marked like patients of transitive verbs, but in the classical language and conservative language dative and comitative applicative arguments are case-marked like agents of transitive verbs. In the classical language, experiencers are marked with accusative case.

However, agreement clitics behave differently, exhibiting typical nominative-accusative alignment. In the classical language, experiencers are marked with object agreement clitics, even when there are other object agreement clitics.

Adpositions in the modern language take nominative-absolutive inanimate arguments unspecified for definiteness, accusative animate arguments, and accusative definite inanimate arguments. However, in the classical language and conservative language, dative, benefactive, and comitative adpositions take nominative-absolutive animate arguments unspecified for definitenss, ergative inanimate arguments, and ergative definite animate arguments.

Verbal Morphosyntax

There are two types of verbs in the modern language, dynamic verbs and stative verbs. Dynamic verbs have principle parts for perfective aspect, imperfective aspect, and imperative mood. Stative verbs have principle parts for stative aspect and imperative mood. In the classical language all verbs have principle parts for perfective aspect, imperfective aspect, stative aspect, and imperative mood. Principle parts are distinguished primary on the basis of ablaut of the vowel of the first syllable of the stem, and imperative verbs also take a a- or u- prefix and often either lose a stem-final vowel or shorten a vowel in the stem. A very common ablaut pattern is to either have a back vowel in the perfective and a matching front vowel in the imperfective, or a close vowel in the perfective and an open vowel in the imperfective.

In subordinate clauses the clitic ni precedes the verb and all other clitics attached to the verb. Subordinate clauses receive no agreement clitic in the parent clause.

Verbs are either preceded or followed by subject and object agreement clitics. If the verb is affirmative non-past imperfective indicative, agreement clitics precede it, otherwise they go after it. Subject clitics precede object clitics. If there is a 3rd person inanimate subject clitic equal in number and gender to a would-be object clitic, the object clitic is omitted. In the classical language, agreement clitics need not be directly adjacent to the verb; e.g. adverbs and even tightly-bound arguments may separate the clitics from the verb.

Verbal Complex

1. yi- for negative verbs, ki- for prohibitive verbs (except in colloquial central dialects, where the separate prohibitive has been lost and replaced with the negative); note that for the imperative these are incalated betweeen imperative prefix vowels and the remainder of the verb stem.
2. ta- for non-past-tense perfective verbs (except when imperative, where there is no distinction between perfective and imperfective)
3. he- for the conditional (except in colloquial eastern dialects, where the conditional is liable to be replaced with the subjunctive)
4. Reduplication of the onset and nucleus of the first syllable of the stem to express iteration (in colloquial eastern dialects if this is preceded by a vowel the reduplicated stem vowel is liable to be lost, with only the initial consonant being geminated)
5. Applicatives are placed directly before the verb stem, except are intercalated between imperative prefix vowels and the remainder of the verb stem.
   1. si- creates a locative verb out of a verb, with the extra argument being the locative argument. The direct object can be omitted, but the locative argument is obligatory. Note that such locative verbs can be passivized, with the locative argument being promoted to the subject.
   2. qi- creates a comitative verb out of a verb, with the extra argument being the comitative argument. If the comitative argument is omitted, a reflexive comitative argument is implied. Note that when such comitative verbs are passivized the direct object is promoted to the subject.
   3. se- creates a dative verb out of a verb, with extra argument being an instrument. The direct object can be omitted, but the dative argument is obligatory. Note that such dative verbs can be passivized, with the dative argument being promoted to the subject.
   4. me- creates an instrumental verb out of a verb, with extra argument being an instrument. The direct object can be omitted, but the instrumental argument is obligatory. Note that such instrumental verbs, with the instrumental argument being promoted to the subject.
6. The verb stem
7. -t(a) for reflexive/reciprocal voice (in western dialects after a consonant this is -at)
8. -d(e) for causative voice (in western dialects after a consonant this is -ed)
9. -i (replaces a preceding short vowel unless it belongs to a monosyllabic stem, -yi after a long vowel or a final vowel of a monosyllabic stem) for passive voice
10. -n for the subjunctive, -m for the jussive
11. -w (-u finally after CC) for past-tense imperfective verbs and stative verbs
12. -a (-ya after a vowel) for indirective verbs (in central dialects this is replaced by -e, -ye after a vowel)

Impersonal Verbs

The subjects and subject agreement clitics of impersonal verbs are simply omitted; impersonal verbs can have only objects and object agreement clitics or no arguments at all.

Modals

Modals are often expressed with impersonal verbs taking a subordinate clause as their direct object. The impersonal modals are stative. However, some modals are expressed as having a subject and a subordinate clause as their direct object.

Verbification

There are a number of prefixes for deriving verbs from adjectives and nouns:

Note that predicative adjectives and nouns do not involve prefixes, but rather involve direct usage of adjectives and nouns like stative verbs. Imperative predicative adjectives and nouns take the imperative prefix a-.

Nominal and Adjectival Morphosyntax

1. Diminutives are marked on nouns and adjectives with -(y)em
2. Degree is marked with
   • -es (dialectally -ets) after a consonant, -s (dialectally -ts) after a vowel, for comparative adjectives and nouns derived from them
   • -q'aa for elative adjectives and nouns derived from them
   • -inna after a consonant, -nna after a vowel, for superlative adjectives and nouns derived from them
3. Gender is marked with
   • -h(a) for feminine animate nouns and adjectives
4. Case is marked with:
   • -a for ergative nouns and adjectives ending in consonants; ergative nouns and adjectives ending in short vowels have the short vowels lengthened, and ergative nouns and adjectives ending in long vowels are unmarked; for feminate animate nouns -h(a) is replaced with -haa
   • -(i)n for accusative nouns and adjectives
   • -i for genitive nouns and adjectives ending in consonants and polysyllabic genitive nouns and adjectives ending in short vowels (where the original final short vowels are lost), -yi for genitive nouns and adjectives ending in long vowels and monosyllabic genitive nouns and adjectives ending in short vowels
   • -u for vocative nouns and adjectives ending in consonants; -w for vocative nouns and adjectives ending in vowels (classical only)
5. Nominative-absolutive case is unmarked.
6. Plural number is marked with:
   • -ya for masculine nouns and adjectives
   • -tu for feminine animate nouns and adjectives
7. State is marked with:
   • -e for construct state nouns and adjectives ending in consonants; with monosyllabic construct state nouns and adjectives ending in vowels the affix is -ye, and with polysyllabic construct state nouns and adjectives ending in vowels the final vowel is replaced with -e (note that construct state is combined with ergative or vocative case nouns and adjectives ending in consonants and genitive case nouns and adjectives which would have ended in genitive -i or -yi (excluding the ergative or genitive affix) by replacing ergative -a, genitive -i, or vocative -u with -e and genitive -yi with -ye and in the case of ergative case nouns and adjectives ending in vowels by attaching -ye, with vocative case nouns whose stems end in vowels by attaching -e after the vocative -w, with the masculine plural as -ee, and the feminine animate plural as -te)
8. Absolute state is unmarked.
9. In the classical language, definiteness is marked on absolute state nouns and adjectives with -um after consonants and -m after vowels, in addition to marking definiteness via case-marking.

Possession and Compounding

Possession by inanimate nouns and indefinite animate nouns, along with compounds, is expressed by placing the possessee in construct state and placing the possessor after it in genitive case. Pronominal possession is expressed by placing the pronominal possessive clitic before the possessee. Possession by definite animate noouns is expressed by placing a pronominal possessive clitic that agrees with the possessor before the possessee, which is also placed in construct state, and placing the possessor after it in genitive case.

Coordination

Cumulative coordination is normally expressed by simple apposition in the same case of multiple noun phrases.

Cumulative coordination of two elements can also be expressed with the comitative adposition.

Alternative coordination is expressed by joining elements with the conjunction li.

Nominalization

There are a number of assorted nominalization prefixes for deriving nouns from verbs and adjectives. The gender of the resulting nouns is normally determined by the nominalization prefix except that prefixes creating masculine animate nouns may be combined with -h(a) to derive feminine animate nouns. Note that nominalizers deriving nouns from verbs can have negative and voice affixes attached to the verb prior to attaching the nominalizer.

Adjectivization

There are a number of prefixes for deriving adjectives from verbs and nouns:

Note that participles are marked for aspect, voice, and tense.

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Demonstrative Pronouns

In the classical language there are the following different medial plural pronouns:

Relative Pronouns

In western and extreme eastern dialects and the classical language, the plural forms are:

Interrogatives

Interrogatives undergo wh-movement, including with their whole noun phrase, to initial position before the verb.

Adpositions

When taking nominal arguments, all adpositions are prepositions.

Note, however, that adpositions do not take independent pronouns as arguments ─ rather they become postpositions and the object agreement forms of personal pronouns and the dependent forms of demonstratives are prefixed to them.

Adpositions take animate arguments in accusative case and inanimate arguments in direct case.

In the classical language and conservative forms of the modern language, the dative, benefactive, and comitative expect an animate argument, normally taking direct case with them, and take ergative case with inanimate arguments.

In the classical language, the distinction between the illative and allative, the inessive and adessive, and the elative and ablative did not exist, and the following forms were largely found instead:

Relational Nouns

On top of adpositions, locatives are expressed with relational nouns. Many relational nouns are etymologically related to body parts.

Numbers

Numbers one through five behave like demonstratives, and are clitics that precede that which they modify.

Numbers six through nine are formed by prefixing numbers one through four with 'five' qa.

Nouns and their adjectives prefixed with 1 through 9 are marked as singular; this does not affect verb agreement clitics, though, which will agree with them as singular, dual, or plural as expected.

To make numbers 1 through 9 stand alone as nouns, e.g. when combining them with larger numbers, they are converted to masculine inanimate nouns by prefixing them onto (w)u, which becomes (w)e in construct state.

Numbers 10, 20, 100, 1000, and 10000 behave like masculine inanimate nouns, and are multiplied (except for 10, which is never multiplied) by prefixing them with clitics for one through nine. They are combined by placing them in apposition, from largest to smallest, in construct state before the noun they qualify, which is in genitive case. As they and not the noun the qualify are the direct arguments of the verb, of adpositions, and of possessees, they go in the appropriate case given their syntactic role.

Quotatives

Quotatives are preceded by the particle ey, which behaves like a masculine inanimate noun, and can be case-marked.

Dialects

Eastern Dialect

• The standard variety is based largely off the eastern dialect, with the exception that many subdialects of the eastern dialect have rounding of /ɑː/.
• Some extreme eastern subdialects preserve /dz ts tsʼ/ as independent phonemes.
• Some extreme eastern subdialects do not lower unstressed /i u/ except before uvular consonant phonemes.

Central Dialect

• Most subdialects of the central dialect merge /dz ts tsʼ/ with /z s s/ but some (particularly north central dialects) merge them with /d t tʼ/.
• The central dialect generally has coda, non-geminate /h/ elision with compensatory lengthening.
• The central dialect generally has pharyngealization of /χ ʁ/ except in west central subdialects.
• The central dialect strengthens intervocalic /f/ to [f] at the start of stressed syllables and otherwise elides it, with hiatus resolution.
• Central dialects have palatalized /k kʼ/ becoming [tʃ tʃʼ], except east central subdialects where they become [tɕ tɕʼ], and south central subdialects where they merge with palatalized /t tʼ/ as [ts tsʼ] (note that affrication is generally prevented before another consonant, where then they instead become [t tʼ]).
• West central subdialects have palatalized /χ ʁ/ be realized as [ç ʝ].
• Central dialects are characterized by elision of short vowels in unstressed syllables. This takes the form of that when, a word is divided into trochees extending left and right from the start of the stressed syllable, short vowels in the second syllable of each trochee are elided unless a sequence of four or greater consonants would result or a short vowel is word-final. Note that this is applied after palatalization and the determining of the position of the stressed syllable, so consonant clusters that are heterogeneous with regard to palatalization may result.

Western Dialect

• The western dialect largely preserves /dz ts tsʼ/ as independent phonemes.
• The western dialect does not lower unstressed /i u/ except before uvular consonant phonemes.
• Southwestern dialects merge palatalized intervocalic /h/ with /j/ as [j].
• Western dialects have palatalized /χ ʁ/ be realized as [ɕ ʑ], except for extreme western subdialects where they are realized as [ʃ ʒ] so as to merge with palatalized /s z/.
• Voiceless plosives are aspirated in western dialects.
• Ejectives may be realized as tenuis in western dialects.

Classical Language

The classical language had some of the following attributes:

• A lack of palatalization
• A preservation of vowel length in unstressed syllables
• A lack of neutralization of unstressed /æ ɑ/
• A lack of lowering of unstressed /i u/
• A lack of frication of intervocalic /b d/
• A phonemic distinction between /ts tsʼ s/ [ts tsʼ s] ts ts' s
• A phonemic distinction between /dz z/ [dz z] dz z
• A phonemic distinction between /χ ħ h/ [χ ħ h] x xh h
• A phonemic distinction between /ʁ ʕ/ [ʁ ʕ] g gh
• The existence of a distinct vocative case, expressed with final -u after consonants and (identical to the ergative case) with lengthening final short vowels
• Separate perfective, imperfective, stative, and imperative conjugation for all verbs, with all verbs having four principle parts
• The wider use of the subjunctive, which was also used as an optative
• The systematic use of the perfective non-past to express the future
• The sparing use of modals
• The lack of a retrospective and prospective
• Greater freedom of placement of agreement clitics, which may often be separated from the verb proper by adverbs or even by arguments or (!) adpositions; this also applies to dependent pronoun clitics in general, e.g. w.r.t. adpositions
• Greater freedom of placement of arguments, whether verb arguments or adpositional arguments; adpositions need not be contiguous with their arguments
• The use of direct case with animate arguments and ergative case with inanimate arguments of some adpositions, such as the dative, benefactive, and comitative adpositions; this is still sometimes seen in conservative language in the modern language
• The use of the accusative case to express experiencers, e.g. Taxhilla nuwaddan 'My father is hot.'
• The use of object clitics to express experiencers, e.g. Nifiist 'I am cold.'
• The use of -(u)m to mark definite absolute state nouns and adjectives; this goes after degree, gender, case, and number affixes
• The general lack of nominalizing prefixes attached to verbs, which may be also put directly in accusative or ergative case
• A lack of distinction between illative/allative, inessive/adessive, and elative/ablative adpositions; while the different forms do exist, they are mostly a matter of the particular individual's native dialect rather than the intended meaning
• The avoidance of long strings of possessors as is commonly found in the modern language
• Formation of plurals in many words by /æ ɑ i u æː ɑː iː uː/ > /æː ɑː iː uː æːj ɑːw iːj uːw/ in the initial syllable; note that this may be combined with the usual affixing plural formation as found in the modern language

Note that the classical language is commonly used today with the phonology of the standard language or the phonology of the individual speaker's native dialect. It is mostly academics who preserve the original pronunciation, which is not commonly known by the public at large.

Samples

Rihalle Kaafi Vocabulary

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