Middle Mkroh

Sound Changes from Old Mkroh

• Mid vowels become close-mid.
• a e i iə uə > ɑ ɤ ɯ ɯɤ uɤ / _{ŋ k w}
• a iə o u uə > ɛ ie ø y ye / _{n t j}
• p t k > ʔ ʔ ʔ / _$
• m n ŋ > ɴ ɴ ɴ / _$
• l > ɻ / C_
• l > ɻ / V_$
• l > ɻ / _ə
• ɻəC₁ > C₁ɻ
• ɛ e ø iə ie ye i y a ɑ ɤ o uə ɯɤ uɤ ɯ u > ɛ˞ e˞ ø˞ iɚ ie˞ ye˞ i˞ y˞ a˞ ɑ˞ ɤ˞ o˞ uɚ ɯɤ˞ uɤ˞ ɯ˞ u˞ / Cɻ_
• ɛ e ø iə ie ye i y a ɑ ɤ o uə ɯɤ uɤ ɯ u > ɛ˞ e˞ ø˞ iɚ ie˞ ye˞ i˞ y˞ a˞ ɑ˞ ɤ˞ o˞ uɚ ɯɤ˞ uɤ˞ ɯ˞ u˞ / _ɻ$
• ɻ > ∅ / C_
• ɻ > ∅ / _$
• iə iɚ uə uɚ > ɨ ɨ˞ ʉ ʉ˞
• dʑ dʑʷ tɕ tɕʷ tɕʰ tɕʷʰ ɕ ɕʷ > dʐ dʐʷ tʂ tʂʷ tʂʰ tʂʷʰ ʂ ʂʷ
• ɟ c cʰ ç > dʑ tɕ tɕʰ ɕ
• ye uɤ ye˞ uɤ˞ > yø uo yø˞ uo˞
• ə > ∅
• C₁ > C₁[+pharyngealized] / #ʔ_
• ʔ > ∅ / #_C
• V₁ > V₁[+pharyngealized] / C[+pharyngealized]_
• C₁[+pharyngealized] > C₁[-pharyngealized]
• ɛˤ eˤ øˤ ieˤ yøˤ iˤ yˤ aˤ ɨˤ ʉˤ ɤˤ oˤ ɯɤˤ uoˤ ɯˤ uˤ > æˤ ɛˤ œˤ iɛˤ yœˤ eˤ øˤ ɑˤ ɘˤ ɵˤ ʌˤ ɔˤ ɯʌˤ uɔˤ ɤˤ oˤ
• ɛ˞ˤ e˞ˤ ø˞ˤ ie˞ˤ yø˞ˤ i˞ˤ y˞ˤ a˞ˤ ɨ˞ˤ ʉ˞ˤ ɤ˞ˤ o˞ˤ ɯɤ˞ˤ uo˞ˤ ɯ˞ˤ u˞ˤ > æˤ ɛˤ œˤ iɛˤ yœˤ eˤ øˤ ɑˤ ɘˤ ɵˤ ʌˤ ɔˤ ɯʌˤ uɔˤ ɤˤ oˤ
• ʔ > ∅/ {ʔ ʔʷ ʔʲ}V_$

Morphological and Syntactic Changes from Old Mkroh

• The mirative comes to mark non-egophoric direct knowledge clauses.
• The old direct knowledge evidential is omitted from non-egophoric direct knowledge clauses, turning the old mirative into a non-egophoric direct knowledge evidential and the old direct knowledge evidential into an egophoric direct knowledge evidential.
• Old Mkroh "just, a moment ago" khyà develops into a new mirative tśà, prefixed onto the verb before other prefixes.
• The perfective develops into a past perfective, known here as the perfect, and the imperfective develops into a present imperfective, known here as the imperfect.
• A past imperfective of dynamic verbs develops compound verbs formed with the auxiliary tá, the perfect of "do", and the imperfect of the main verb.
• A past imperfective of stative verbs develops compound verbs formed with the auxiliary kiey, the perfect of "exist", and the imperfect of the main verb.
• A future imperfective develops from compound verbs formed with the auxiliary rwuy, the imperfect of "go", and the imperfect of the main verb.
• A future perfective develops from compound verbs formed with the auxiliary rwuy, the imperfect of "go", and the perfect of the main verb.
• Active-stative alignment develops. In the process, SAP arguments are marked both on the verb and with independent pronouns in the proper case. Also, a differentiation between volitional and non-volitional verbs develops not just for intransitive verbs but also for transitive verbs, with subjects of volitional transitive verbs being in agentive case and subjects of non-volitional transitive verbs being in patientive case.
• Inverse marking develops from Old Mkroh "be other" pyǒt prefixed onto the verb as pyǒi.
• The animacy distinction in the agentive case is lost, since inanimate agents will be used primarily with non-volitional verbs, and thus take patientive case anyways.
• Antipassive marking is lost for volitional verbs, being retained only to distinguish between non-volitional subjects of antipassive verbs and subjects of passive verbs.
• If there is an instrument that is indefinite, non-individuated, not specifically plural, and which does not form a larger NP, it is moved directly before the main verb; otherwise, if there is a direct object that is indefinite, non-individuated, not specifically plural, and w hich does not form a larger NP, that is moved directly before the main verb.
• Prefixes on finite verbs get transferred to the preceding main verb, if there is a preceding main verb, and onto direct objects or instruments (which lose case marking) before them, if they are indefinite, non-individuated, and not specifically plural.
• Auxiliary/modal verbs get reduced to affixes.

Phonemes and Orthography

Consonants

Vowels

Monophthongs

Regular

(Note: /ɛ ø y/ are written a o u before coda /j/, and /ɑ ɤ ɯ/ are written a e i before coda /w/.)

Rhoticized

(Note: /ɛ˞ ø˞ y˞/ are written ar or ur before coda /j/, and /ɑ˞ ɤ˞ ɯ˞/ are written ar er ir before coda /w/.)

Pharyngealized

(Note: /æˤ œˤ øˤ/ are written aʼ oʼ uʼ before coda /j/, and /ʌˤ ɤˤ/ are written eʼ iʼ before coda /w/.)

Diphthongs

Regular

(Note: /ie yø/ are written ie ou before coda /j/, and /ɯɤ uo/ are written ie ou before coda /w/.)

Rhoticized

(Note: /ie˞ yø˞/ are written ier our before coda /j/, and /ɯɤ˞ uo˞/ are written ier our before coda /w/.)

Pharyngealized

(Note: /iɛˤ yœˤ/ are written ieʼ ouʼ before coda /j/, and /ɯʌˤ uɔˤ/ are written ieʼ ouʼ before coda /w/.)

Tones

Syllable Structure and Phonotactics

Coda /w/ can only be preceded by /ɑ ɤ o ɯ u ɯɤ uo ɑ˞ ɤ˞ o˞ ɯ˞ u˞ ɯɤ˞ uo˞ ɑˤ ʌˤ ɔˤ ɤˤ oˤ ɯʌˤ uɔˤ/. Coda /j/ can only be preceded by /ɛ e ø i y ie yø ɛ˞ e˞ ø˞ i˞ y˞ ie˞ yø˞ æˤ ɛˤ œ eˤ øˤ iɛˤ yœˤ/. /ɴ/ may only occur in coda position.

Nominal Morphology

Verbs have the following suffixes

• Definite ʔyá/ʲ+á but yá/ʲ+á before syllables beginning with ʔ/ʔw/ʔy
• Number/animacy suffixes:
  • Dual, animate kǎ (káp)
  • Plural, animate ya/a/á/hyá
  • Dual, inanimate rwa/ar/ár/hrwá
  • Plural, inanimate nǒ (nok)
• Case suffixes:
  • Agentive li/ʲ+i/ʲ+í/hlí
  • Patientive ∅
  • Genitive tsá
  • Dative ŋa
  • Benefactive dźǎ
  • Instrumental mǐ
  • Comitative la
  • Essive bya
  • Translative liy
  • Ablative yuo/ʲ+uo/ʲ+uo/hyuo
  • Elative tsà
  • Locative yù/ʲ+ù/ʲ+ù/hyù
  • Adessive hwǒ
  • Inessive tsú
  • Allative hwǎ
  • Lative lè
  • Illative diè

Verbal Morphology

Verbal complexes have the following morphology:

• Inverse pyǒi
• Mirative tśà
• Nominalization prefixes:
  • Verbal noun ʔuó
  • Agent noun tí
  • Patient noun pó
• Antipassive voice (for non-volitional verbs only) sí
• Reflexive voice rwu
• Reciprocal voice pu
• Causative voice:
  • Perfect muo
  • Imperfect mu
• Resultative:
  • Perfect la
  • Imperfect le
• Incorporated nominal stem
• Verbal stem
• Modal suffixes:
  • "Shall" túo
  • "Can" wi
  • "Must" ké
  • "Need to" lu
  • "Want" tiér
• Tense suffixes:
  • Dynamic past imperfective tá
  • Stative past imperfective kiei
  • Future rwui
• Evidential / mood suffixes:
  • Egophoric direct knowledge še
  • Non-egophoric direct knowledge té
  • Deductive ká
  • Reportative huó
  • Assumption yie/ie/ié/hyié
  • Dubitative/subjunctive ra/ʲ+a/ʲ+á/hrá
  • Jussive ke
• Person suffixes:
  • 1st (ʔ)áŋ/(ʔ)ám
  • 1st + 2nd pie
  • 2nd (ʔ)ǎu(ʔ)/(ʔ)ák
• Number/animacy suffixes:
  • Dual animate kú
  • Plural animate mi
• Imperative number suffixes:
  • Imperative 2nd dual la
  • Imperative 2nd plural yi/i/í/hyí
• Negation suffixes:
  • Negative ŋa
  • Prohibitive té

Pronouns

Non-possessive

• 1sg sg. may
• 1st du. rwuʔ
• 1st pl. rwu
• 1st + 2nd du. teuʔ
• 1st + 2nd pl. te
• 2nd sg. niuŋ (niŋ)
• 2nd du. loʔ
• 2nd pl. lo
• 3rd sg. yo
• 3rd du. animate kakǎ (kakáp)
• 3rd pl. animate ka
• 3rd du. inanimate yorwa
• 3rd pl. inanimate yonǒ (yonok)

Possessive

• 1st sg. ma
• 1st du./pl. rwu
• 1st + 2nd du./pl. te
• 2nd sg. ni
• 2nd du./pl. lo
• 3rd sg. yo
• 3rd du./pl. animate ka
• 3rd du./pl. inanimate yo

Person/animacy Hierarchy

There is a person/animacy hierarchy of:

First, there is the hierarchy of 1st > 2nd > relativized > 3rd > human > non-human animate > inanimate.

Second, there is the hierarchy of named > definite > indefinite.

Third, there is the hierarchy of closer to the start of the clause > further from the start of the clause.

Possession

Attributive possession is divided into alienable and inalienable possession. Alienable attributive possession is marked with the genitive of the possessor tsá followed by a relative marker na followed by the possessed. Inalienable attributive possession is marked with either a possessive personal pronoun preceding that possessed or the possessor followed by a possessive personal pronoun agreeing with the possessor followed by the possessed.

Predicative possession is expressed with that possessed as a subject for the existential verb kiey (pfv.) / koy (ipfv.) combined with the possessor marked either with the benefactive dźǎ, to express "have" possession, the inessive tsú, to express "own" possession, or the comitative la, to express "have on" possession.

Examples

Registers

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