| Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Guttural | ||||
| Nasals | /m/ [m] ⟨m⟩ | /n/ [n] ⟨n⟩ | /ɲ/ [ɲ] ⟨ň⟩ | ||||||
| Voiced Plosives | /b/ [b] ⟨b⟩ | /d̪/ [d̪] ⟨d⟩ /d/ [d] ⟨dh⟩ /dz/ [dz] ⟨dz⟩ | /dʒ/ [dʒ] ⟨dž⟩ | ||||||
| Voiceless Plosives | /pʰ/ [pʰ] ⟨p⟩ | /t̪ʰ/ [t̪ʰ] ⟨t⟩ /tʰ/ [tʰ] ⟨th⟩ /tsʰ/ [tsʰ] ⟨ts⟩ | /tʃʰ/ [tʃʰ] ⟨tš⟩ /cʰ/ [cʰ] ⟨c⟩ | /kʰ/ [kʰ] ⟨k⟩ | /qʰ/ [qʰ] ⟨q⟩ | ||||
| Ejectives | /t̪ʼ/ [t̪ʼ] ⟨t'⟩ /tʼ/ [tʼ] ⟨th'⟩ /tsʼ/ [tsʼ] ⟨ts'⟩ | /tʃʼ/ [tʃʼ] ⟨tš'⟩ /cʼ/ [cʼ] ⟨c'⟩ | /kʼ/ [kʼ] ⟨k'⟩ | /qʼ/ [qʼ] ⟨q'⟩ | |||||
| Voiceless Fricatives | /s/ [s] ⟨s⟩ | /ʃ/ [ʃ] ⟨š⟩ /ç/ [ç] ⟨ś⟩ | /x/ [x] ⟨xh⟩ | /χ/ [χ] ⟨x⟩ | /h/ [h] ⟨h⟩ | ||||
| Voiced Fricatives | /β/ [β] ⟨v⟩ | /ð/ [ð] ⟨đ⟩ /z/ [z] ⟨z⟩ | /ʒ/ [ʒ] ⟨ž⟩ | /ɣ/ [ɣ] ⟨gh⟩ | /ʁ/ [ʁ] ⟨g⟩ | ||||
| Liquids | /r/ [r~ɾ] ⟨r⟩ /l/ [l] ⟨l⟩ | /ʎ/ [ʎ] ⟨ľ⟩ | |||||||
| Semivowels | /w/ [w] ⟨w⟩ | /j/ [j] ⟨y⟩ |
Ejectives are only weakly ejective and may be realized as tenuis.
Orthographically, when phonemes represented by digraphs or trigraphs are geminate, only the first character is doubled.
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | /i/ [i] ⟨i, í*⟩ | /u/ [u] ⟨u, ú*⟩ | |
| Mid | /e/ [e] ⟨e, é*⟩ | /ə/ [ə] ⟨a, á*⟩ | /o/ [o] ⟨o, ó*⟩ |
| Open | /a/ [a] ⟨à, â*⟩ |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | /ĩ/ [ĩ] ⟨iñ, íñ*⟩ | /ũ/ [ũ] ⟨uñ, úñ*⟩ | |
| Mid | /ẽ/ [ẽ] ⟨eñ, éñ*⟩ | /ə̃/ [ə̃] ⟨añ, áñ*⟩ | /õ/ [õ] ⟨oñ, óñ*⟩ |
| Open | /ã/ [ã] ⟨àñ, âñ*⟩ |
| Front | Central | Back | |
| Close | /iː/ [iː] ⟨íi*⟩ | /uː/ [uː] ⟨úu*⟩ | |
| Mid | /eː/ [eː] ⟨ée*⟩ | /əː/ [əː] ⟨áa*⟩ | /oː/ [oː] ⟨óo*⟩ |
| Open | /aː/ [aː] ⟨âa*⟩ |
Note that long vowels are always stressed.
* Stressed
The syllable structure is C(C)V(ː)(C)(C)(C), except that initial syllables can begin with a vowel.
Stress is phonemic and mobile, and may fall on one of the last three syllables of a word (including any attached clitics).
Only the stressed vowel can be long. Nasal vowels can precede both oral and nasal consonants and can fall in final position.
The protolanguage had the vowel phoneme inventory /i æ ɑ u iː æː ɑː uː/, allophonic palatalization, and a contrast between uvular and pharyngeal consonants.
Short vowels in the most unstressed positions (i.e. odd distances from the primary stress and not in initial or final syllables) became ultrashort; this is relevant later.
Note that in the following collapse in vowel lengths, ultrashort vowels remain ultrashort.
Protolanguage /i æ ɑ u iː æː ɑː uː/ became /e ə ə o i a a u/ when not adjacent to uvular or pharyngeal consonants.
Protolanguage /i æ ɑ u iː æː ɑː uː/ became /e a a o e a a o/ when adjacent to uvular consonants and not adjacent to any pharyngeal consonants.
Protolanguage /i æ ɑ u iː æː ɑː uː/ became /e e e ə e e e ə/ when adjacent to pharyngeal consonants.
Protolanguage /ij æj ɑj uj iːj æːj ɑːj uːj/ where the /j/ fell in a coda position became /i e aj uj ij ej aj uj/ when not preceded by uvular or pharyngeal consonants.
Protolanguage /ij æj ɑj uj iːj æːj ɑːj uːj/ where the /j/ fell in a coda position became /e a aj oj ej aj aj oj/ when preceded by uvular consonants.
Protolanguage /ij æj ɑj uj iːj æːj ɑːj uːj/ where the /j/ fell in a coda position became /e e ej əj ej ej ej əj/ when preceded by pharyngeal consonants.
Protolanguage /iw æw ɑw uw iːw æːw ɑːw uːw/ where the /w/ fell in a coda position became /iw aw o u iw aw ow uw/ when not preceded by uvular or pharyngeal consonants.
Protolanguage /iw æw ɑw uw iːw æːw ɑːw uːw/ where the /w/ fell in a coda position became /ew aw o o ew aw ow ow/ when preceded by uvular consonants.
Protolanguage /iw æw ɑw uw iːw æːw ɑːw uːw/ where the /w/ fell in a coda position became /ew ew ə ə ew ew əw əw/ when preceded by pharyngeal consonants.
Stressed vowels in open syllables lengthened.
Geminates shortened, and simultaneously coda nasals were elided leaving preceding nasal vowels. When a geminate nasal followed a vowel, this resulted in a nasal vowel followed by a non-geminate nasal consonant.
Oral ultrashort vowels were elided where four (or greater)-consonant clusters or clusters consisting of a sibilant fricative or affricate followed by a sibilant fricative would not result; otherwise ultrashort vowels became merely short. As a result, palatalization becomes phonemic.
Pharyngeal consonants become uvular, but do not change their coloring of vowels. Note that as uvular consonants were able to undergo palatalization which pharyngeal consonants did not undergo, this results in a further contrast between palatalized uvular (i.e. velar) and uvular consonats.
When a stop precedes another stop or affricate, the two combined to form a geminate in the form of longer-stopped version of the second element.
/j/ between consonants or after a consonant and in final position becomes /i/, and /w/ between consonants or after a consonant and in final position becomes /u/.
@ Contracted form.
+ Uvular-colored form.
# Pharyngeal-colored form.
~ Palatalizing form.
^ Uvular-coloring form.
% Pharyngeal-coloring form.
: A long vowel or geminate in the protolanguage.
& Before a vowel in the protolanguage.
There are three aspects (imperfective, perfective, and stative) and two morphosyntactic tenses (present and past). Note, however, that the 'present perfective' is actually used to express the future or performatives.
Many verbs do not have stems that distinguish all there aspects on the verb itself. Rather, the order of verb agreement clitics is used to express tense, with clitics preceding the verb indicating present by default and clitics following the verb indicating past by default. In turn, present tense implies imperfective aspect and past tense implies perfective aspect. Past imperfective, 'present perfective', and for verbs that are not defective so as to always be stative, present stative and past stative are marked with periphrasis.
Past imperfective is expressed by placing the main verb in the past, using the imperfective stem of the main verb, and preceding the main verb with tâg 'be like'.
'Present perfective' is expressed by placing the main verb in the present, using the perfective stem of the main verb, and preceding the main verb with góň 'create, make, do + complementizer'.
Past stative is expressed by placing the main verb in the past, using the stative stem of the main verb, and preceding the main verb with yáň 'exist + complementizer'.
Present stative is expressed by placing the main verb in the present, using the stative stem of the main verb, and preceding the main verb with yáň 'exist + complementizer'.
The verb itself is composed of the following:
Modals are often expressed with impersonal verbs taking a subordinate clause as their direct object. The impersonal modals are stative. However, some modals are expressed as having a subject and a subordinate clause as their direct object.
| Pfv. | Ipfv. | Stat. | Imp. | Impersonal? | |
| Possibility | n/a | n/a | ghàh | n/a | yes |
| Desire ('want') | ku:, ko:+, ka:# | ~ci:, ~ce:+, ~ce:# | n/a | aku, ako+, aka# | no |
| Desirability ('should') | n/a | n/a | sawa, sawà+, sawe#, saw@, swa@ | n/a | yes |
| Obligation | n/a | n/a | wi:t | n/a | yes |
| Necessity ('must') | n/a | n/a | ~śeya, ~śeyà+, ~śeye#, ~śey@ | n/a | yes |
| Need | t'à:n&, t'à:ñ | ~ts'à:n&, ~ts'à:ñ | n/a | at'an&, at'añ | no |
| Apparent | mà:y | mà:y&, me:y | n/a | omay&, omày, omy@ | no |
| Doubt | lu:ňa, lu:ňà+, lu:ňe#, lu:ň@ | ľi:ňa, ľi:ňà+, ľi:ňe#, ľi:ň@ | n/a | alu:n&, alu:ñ | no |
| Agreement | q'o:w | ~k'a:w | n/a | oq'aw&, oq'o | no |
| Retrospective | n/a | n/a | ~tsa, ~ts@ | n/a | yes |
| Prospective | n/a | n/a | lor | n/a | yes |
| Inchoative | su:t' | ši:t' | n/a | asot', ast'@ | yes |
| Cessative | dzay&, dzày, dzy@ | `džay&, ~dže, ~džy@ | n/a | adzay&, adzày, adzy@ | yes |
There are no cases, three numbers (singular, dual, and plural), four genders (masculine animate, feminine animate, masculine inanimate, and feminine inanimate), two states (absolute and construct), and four degrees (positive, comparative, elative, and superlative).
Comparative degree is marked with (~)-ts(@), ~-ats, ~-àts+, or ~-ets# depending on whether the stem ended in a vowel, non-uvular/non-pharyngeal consonant, uvular consonant, or pharyngeal consonant in the protolanguage, and how elision took place. This is a palatalizing suffix. Also, stress-related stem changes may take place.
Elative degree is marked with ^-q'à, which may color a final vowel of the stem. Also, stress-related stem changes may take place.
Superlative degree is marked with either (~)-ñna, ~-eñna or (~)-na(@) depending on whether the stem ended in a vowel or consonant or whether vowel elision applied. This is a palatalizing suffix. Also, stress-related stem changes may take place.
Feminine animate gender is marked with -s or, where a CCC cluster formerly forbidden in the protolanguage would have resulted, -sa.
Dual number is marked with -ta.
Plural number is marked on masculine nouns and adjectives with ~-ya (this is a palatalizing suffix), and on feminine animate nouns and adjectives with -to.
Non-pronominal possession is expressed by placing the possessee before the possessor in construct state. Construct state is marked on nouns and adjectives ending in consonants with the affix ~-a, ~-à+, or ~-e# (this is a palatalizing suffix), on monosyllabic nouns and adjectives ending in vowels with the affix ~-ya, and on polysyllabic nouns and adjectives ending in vowels by removing the final vowel and then treating them like nouns and adjectives ending in consonants. Other changes may occur due to stress changes and changes in syllable structure historically.
| Ind. | Subj. Agreement | Obj. Agreement | Poss. | |
| 1st sg. | ~éñn:a | na, nà+, ne#, n@ | ~ňe, ~ň@ | no, na#, n@ |
| 2nd m. sg. | ~éštsa | ma, mà+, me#, m@ | ~me, ~m@ | mo, ma#, m@ |
| 2nd f. sg. | ~éštsas | ma, mà+, me#, m@ | ~me, ~m@ | mos, ms@ |
| 3rd m. anim. sg. | ~méñna | ~tse, ~ts@ | ta, tà+, te#, t@ | to, ta#, t@ |
| 3rd f. anim. sg. | hóñnas | so, sa#, s@ | sa, sà+, se#, s@ | sos |
| 3rd m. inan. sg. | áhna | ba, bà+, be#, va, và+, ve#, b@, v@ | ~ba, ~bà+, ~be#, ~va, ~và+, ~ve#, ~b@, ~v@ | ~ba, ~bà+, ~be#, ~va, ~và+, ~ve#, ~b@, ~v@ |
| 3rd f. inan. sg. | áñta | ka, kà+, ke#, k@ | ka, kà+, ke#, k@ | ka, kà+, ke#, k@ |
| 1st du. | ~éñn:ta | nat, nt@ | ~ňet, ~ňt@ | not, nt@ |
| 2nd m. du. | ~éštsta | mat, mt@ | ~met, ~mt@ | mot, mt@ |
| 2nd f. du. | ~éštsasta | mat, mt@ | ~met, ~mt@ | most, mst@ |
| 3rd m. anim. du. | ~méñn:ta | ~tset, ~tst@ | tat, tt@ | tot, tt@ |
| 3rd f. anim. du. | hóñn:sta | sot, st@ | sat, st@ | sost |
| 3rd m. inan. du. | áhnta | bat, vat@, bt@, vt@ | ~bat, ~vat@, ~bt@, ~vt@ | ~bat, ~vat@, ~bt@, ~vt@ |
| 3rd f. inan. du. | áñtta | kat, kt@ | kat, kt@ | kat, kt@ |
| 1st pl. | ~yáñn:a | wa, wà+, we#, w@ | ~we, ~w@ | wo, wa#, w@ |
| 2nd m. pl. | sálày | day&, dày, đay&, đày, dy@, đy@ | ~dzey&, ~dzi:, ~zey&, ~zi:, ~dzy@, ~zy@ | doy, duy, đoy, đuy, dy@, đy@ |
| 2nd f. pl. | salást | ~dzat, ~zat@, ~dzt@, ~zt@ | ~dzet, ~zet, ~dzt@, ~zt@, | dost, đost, dst@, đst@ |
| 3rd m. anim. pl. | âgtày | ~^ghày&, ~^ghà:, ~^ghy@ | ^gày&, ^gy@ | ^goy&, ^guy, ^gy@ |
| 3rd f. anim. pl. | àgtást | lat, lt* | lat, lt@ | lost, lst@ |
| 3rd m. inan. pl. | éx:ey | hay&, hày, hy@ | hay&, hày, hy@ | hay&, hày, hy@ |
| 3rd f. inan. pl. | xâľa | ^gà, ^ge#, ^g@ | ^gà, ^ge#, ^g@ | ^gà, ^ge#, ^g@ |
| Ind. | Dep. | Poss. | |
| Prox. m. anim. sg. | sáñň:a | sa, sà+, se#, s@ | ~še, ~š@ |
| Prox. f. anim. sg. | sáñň:s | sas | ~šes |
| Prox. inan. sg. | ~šéhma | ~ša, ~šà+, ~še#, ~š@ | ~še, ~š@ |
| Med. m. anim. sg. | t'áñm:e | ~ts'a, ~ts'à+, ~ts'e#, ~ts'@ | ~ts'e, ~ts'@ |
| Med. f. anim. sg. | t'áñm:s | ~ts'as | ~ts'es |
| Med. inan. sg. | t'áñm:e | ~ts'a, ~ts'à+, ~ts'e#, ~ts'@ | ~ts'e, ~ts'@ |
| Dist. m. anim. sg. | ^qâštsa | ^qà, ^qe#, ^q@ | ~^ke, ~^k@ |
| Dist. f. anim. sg. | ^qâštsas | ^qàs, ^qs@ | ~^kes, ~^ks@ |
| Dist. inan. sg. | ~^kéxe | ~^kà, ~^ke#, ~^k@ | ~^ke, ~^k@ |
| Prox. m. anim. du. | sáñň:ta | sat, st@ | ~šet, ~št@ |
| Prox. f. anim. du. | sáñň:sta | sast | ~šest |
| Prox. inan. du. | ~šéhmta | ~šat, ~št@ | ~šet, ~št@ |
| Med. m. anim. du. | t'áñm:ta | ~ts'at, ~ts't@ | ~ts'et, ~ts't@ |
| Med. f. anim. du. | t'áñm:sta | ~ts'ast | ~ts'est |
| Med. inan. du. | t'áñm:ta | ~ts'at, ~ts't@ | ~ts'et, ~ts't@ |
| Dist. m. anim. du. | ^qâštsta | ^qàt, ^qt@ | ~^ket, ~^kt@ |
| Dist. f. anim. du. | ^qâštsasta | ^qàst, ^qst@ | ~^kest, ~^kst |
| Dist. inan. du. | ~^kéxta | ~^kàt, ~^kt@ | ~^ket, ~^kt@ |
| Prox. m. anim. pl. | ~yâśi | ~yoy&, ~yuy, ~yy@ | ~yey&, ~yi:, ~yy@ |
| Prox. f. anim. pl. | ~yâśst | ~yost, ~yst@ | ~yest, ~yst@ |
| Prox m. inan. pl | ~yázday | ~yay&, ~ye:, ~yy@ | ~yey&, ~yi:, ~yy@ |
| Prox. f. inan. pl. | ~yázda | ~ya, ~yà+, ~ye#, ~y@ | ~ye, ~y@ |
| Med. m. anim. pl. | ~%géhtay | ~%gey&, ~%ge:, ~%gy@ | %gey, %gy@ |
| Med. f. anim. pl. | ~%géhtast | ~%gest, ~%gst@ | %gest, %gst@ |
| Med. m. inan. pl. | %gáñň:e | %gay, %gy@ | %gey, %gy@ |
| Med. f. inan. pl. | %gáñň:a | %ga, %g@ | %ge, %g@ |
| Dist. m. anim. pl. | zaháy | zay&, zày, zy@ | zoy&, zuy, zy@ |
| Dist. f. anim. pl. | zahást | zast | zost |
| Dist. m. inan. pl. | žaháy | ~žey&, ~ži:, ~žy | zoy&, zuy, zy@ |
| Dist. f. inan. pl. | žáha | ~že, ~ž@ | zo, za#, z@ |
| Ind. | Subj. Agreement | Obj. Agreement | Poss. | |
| Rel. m. anim. sg. | k'áama | k'a, k'à+, k'e#, k'@ | ~c'e, ~c'@ | k'o, k'a#, k'@ |
| Rel. f. anim. sg. | k'amás | ~c'a, ~c'à+, ~c'e#, ~c'@ | ~c'e, ~c'@ | k'os, k's@ |
| Rel. inan. sg. | c'éñň:a | ~c'a, ~c'à+, ~c'e#, ~c'@ | ~c'e, ~c'@ | k'o, k'a#, k'@ |
| Rel. m. anim. du. | k'áamta | k'at, tt@ | ~c'et, ~tt@ | k'ot, tt@ |
| Rel. f. anim. du. | k'amásta | ~c'at, ~tt@ | ~c'et, ~tt@ | k'ost, k'st@ |
| Rel. inan. du. | c'éñň:ta | ~c'at, ~tt@ | ~c'et, ~tt@ | k'ot, tt@ |
| Rel. m. anim. pl. | tsađáy | tsay&, tsày, tsy@ | ~tšey&, ~tši:, ~tšy@ | tsoy&, tsuy, tsy@ |
| Rel. f. anim. pl. | tsađást | ~tšat, ~tšt@ | ~tšet, ~tšt@ | tsost |
| Rel. m. inan. pl. | tšeśée | ~tšay&, ~tše:, ~tšy@ | ~tšey&, ~tši:, ~tšy@ | tsoy&, tsuy, tsy@ |
| Rel. f. inan. pl. | tšeśáa | ~tša, ~tšà+, ~tše#, ~tš@ | ~tše, ~tš@ | tso, tsa#, ts@ |
Interrogatives undergo wh-movement, including with their whole noun phrase, to initial position before the verb.
| Form | |
| Independent animate | k'áts:a, k'áts:à+, k'áts:e#, k'áts:@ |
| Independent inanimate | k'áawa, k'áawà+, k'áawe#, k'áaw@ |
| Independent locative | k'ár:e, k'ár:@ |
| Independent method | k'áame, k'áam@ |
| Independent reason | k'áy:a, k'áy:à+, k'áy:e#, k'áy:@ |
| Dependent demonstrative | k'a, k'à+, k'e# |
| Dependent possessive | k'o, k'a# |
| Yes/no question | k'áa, kâa+, kée# |